A model of knock-out of oxygen by charged particle (α and proton) irradiation of Bi₂Sr₂CaCu₂O_8+x (Bi-2212) is proposed on the basis of Monte Carlo TRIM calculations. In Bi-2212, the loosely bound excess oxygen is vulnerable to be displaced by particle irradiation. Binding energy and hence, displacement energy of this loosely bound excess oxygen is less compared to that of stoichiometric lattice bound oxygen and other atoms. The displaced or knocked out oxygen goes to pores or intergranular region and generates large pressure inside the sample. Because of porosity of the material, this displaced oxygen diffuses out and there is a net reduction of oxygen content of the sample. The irradiation induced oxygen knock-out is dominant in the bulk where nonionizing energy loss is maximum.

Experimental studies of nuclear excitations have been an important subject from the earliest days when the institute was established. The construction of 4 MeV proton cyclotron was mainly aimed to achieve this goal. Early experiments in nuclear spectroscopy were done with radioactive nuclei with the help of beta and gamma ray spectrometers. Small NaI(Tl) detectors were used for gamma-gamma coincidence, angular correlation and life time measurements. The excited states nuclear magnetic moments were measured in perturbed gamma-gamma angular correlation experiments. A high transmission magnetic beta ray spectrometer was used to measure internal conversion coefficients and beta-gamma coincidence studies. A large number of significant contributions were made during 1950–59 using these facilities. Proton beam in the cyclotron was made available in the late 1950’s and together with 14 MeV neutrons obtained from a C-W generator a large number of short-lived nuclei were investigated during 1960’s and 1970’s. The introduction of high resolution Ge gamma detectors and the improved electronics helped to extend the spectroscopic work which include on-line (p₇p′γ) and (p₇nγ) reaction studies. Nuclear spectroscopic studies entered a new phase in the 1980’s with the availability of 40–80 MeV alpha beam from the variable energy cyclotron at VECC, Calcutta. A number of experimental groups were formed in the institute to study nuclear level schemes with (α₇xnγ) reactions. Initially only two unsuppressed Ge detectors were used for coincidence studies. Later in 1989 five Ge detectors with a large six segmented NaI(Tl) multiplicitysum detector system were successfully used to select various channels in (α₇xnγ) reactions. From 1990 to date a variety of medium energy heavy ions were made available from the BARC-TIFR Pelletron and the Nuclear Science Centre Pelletron. The state of the art gamma detector arrays in these centres enabled the Saha Institute groups to undertake more sophisticated experiments. Front line nuclear spectroscopy works are now being done and new informations are obtained for a large number of nuclei over a wide mass range. Currently Saha Institute is building a multi-element gamma heavy ion neutron array detector (MEGHNAD), which will have six high efficiency clover Ge detector together with charged particle ball and other accessories. The system is expected to be usable in 2002 and will be used in experiments using high energy heavy ions from VECC.