When tin oxide is doped with Sb₂O₃ and CoO, it shows highly nonlinear current (𝐼)–voltage (𝑉) characteristics. Addition of CoO leads to creation of oxygen vacancies and helps in sintering of SnO₂. Antimony oxide acts as a donor and increases the conductivity. The results are nearly the same when antimony oxide is replaced by tantalum oxide. The observed nonlinear coefficient, 𝛼 = 30 and the breakdown voltage is 120 V/mm.

A gel was formed when a mixture of TiOCl₂ and tartaric acid was heated on a water bath. Ultrafine powders of TiO₂ in the anatase phase were formed, when the gel was decomposed at 623 K and the mole ratio of tartaric acid to titanium was 2. The anatase phase was converted into rutile phase on annealing at higher temperatures, > 773 K. When initial ratio of titanium to tartaric acid was < 2, the decomposition of gel leads to the formation of mixed phases of rutile and anatase. However, pure rutile phase was not formed by the decomposition of gel for any ratio of tartaric acid and titanium. These powders were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and surface area measurements. The average particle size obtained for anatase phase was 3 nm whereas it was 30 nm for rutile phase. Raman scattering experiments were also performed to confirm both anatase and rutile phases.

The nonlinear current (𝐼)–voltage (𝑉) characteristics of tin dioxide doped with either Nb₂O₅ and CoO or Sb₂O₃ and CoO show promising values of nonlinear coefficient (𝛼) values (∼11) with low breakdown voltages (𝐸_B, ∼40 V mm^-1). The pentavalent antimony or niobium acts as donor and increases the electronic conductivity. The crucial parameter for obtaining low breakdown voltage is the grain size, which depends upon sintering duration and temperature of these oxide ceramics.