The northeastern part of Kumaun Lesser Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India, lying between the rupture zones of 1905, Kangra and 1934, Bihar–Nepal earthquakes and known as ‘central seismic gap’ is a segment of an active fault known to produce significant earthquakes and has not slipped in an unusually long time when compared to other segments. The studied section forms a part of this seismic gap and is seismically an active segment of the Himalayan arc, as compared to the remaining part of the Kumaun Lesser Himalaya and it is evident by active geomorphological features and seismicity data. The geomorphological features of various river valley transects suggest that the region had a history of tectonic rejuvenation which is testified by the deposition of various levels of terraces and their relative uplift, shifting and ponding of river channels, uplifted potholes, triangular facets on fault planes, fault scarps, etc. Further, the seismic data of five-station digital telemetered seismic network along with two stand alone systems show the distribution of earthquakes in or along the analyzed fault transects. It is observed that the microseismic earthquakes (magnitude 1.0–3.0) frequently occur in the region and hypocenters of these earthquakes are confined to shallow depths (10–20 km), with low stress drop values (1.0–10 bar) and higher peak ground velocity (PGV). The cluster of events is observed in the region, sandwiched between the Berinag Thrust (BT) in south and Main Central Thrust (MCT) in north. The occurrences of shallow focus earthquakes and the surface deformational features in the different river valley transect indicates that the region is undergoing neotectonic rejuvenation. In absence of chronology of the deposits it is difficult to relate it with extant seismicity, but from the geomorphic and seismic observations it may be concluded that the region is still tectonically active. The information would be very important in identifying the areas of hazard prone and also planning and designing of the socio-economic projects.

The present contribution summarizes the results of a study focusing on the influence of quartz microstructures on the seismic wave velocities in the quartzites of the Garhwal Himalaya. Quartzites being monomineralic were chosen for the present study so as to nullify the effect of other mineral constituents on the seismic velocity. Samples were collected from different tectonic settings of the Higher and Lesser Himalayas which are separated from one another by the major tectonic zone ‘Main Central Thrust’ (MCT). These are mainly Pandukeshwar quartzite, Tapovan quartzite and Berinag quartzite. The samples of Berinag quartzite were collected from near the klippen and the thrust, termed as Alaknanda Thrust. The vast differences in microstructures and associated seismic wave velocities have been noted in different quartzites. It has also been observed that quartzites of the MCT zone and Alaknanda Thrust have higher seismic velocities. This is because of their coarse-grained nature of the rocks as evidenced by the strong positive relation between seismic velocities and grain area. The coarsening is either due to the operation of grain boundary migration and grain area reduction process or high aspect ratio/shape preferred orientation. The quartzites located around Nandprayag Klippen have undergone static recrystallization and exhibit the lowest seismic wave velocities.

Magnetic polarity stratigraphy studies were carried out on Jabbar Khad section of Nurpur area, Kangra District, Himachal Pradesh, India. Oriented block samples were collected at 202 sites with 3–5 samples per site from a 2350-m thick continuous sedimentary sequence consisting of sandstone–mudstone alternating beds. Specimens were subjected to thermal demagnetization (100–700°C) after measuring their natural remanent magnetization (NRM). Palaeolatitudes of virtual geomagnetic pole (VGP) from each site were calculated from the acquired characteristic remanent magnetization (ChRM) directions. The observed remanence carrier could be haematite. Magnetic polarity scale (MPS) was erected. This MPS is correlated with the standard geomagnetic polarity time scale (GPTS) of Lourens et al. (2004). The MPS readily matched from chron C2An.1n to chron C4n.2n, therefore assigning an age 8.20–2.60 Ma to the middle and upper Siwalik sections at Nurpur. The rate of sedimentation in middle Siwalik is 29 mm/yr and upper Siwalik is 59 mm/yr.

The area around Darjeeling consists of medium grade metamorphic rocks and provides a classic example of inverted Himalayan metamorphism. The area under investigation shows upper amphibolite facies metamorphism (sillimanite-muscovite subfacies), rocks are intimately associated with the migmatites and granites. The presence of quartzite, calc-silicate rocks, graphitic schist and abundance of aluminous minerals like kyanite or sillimanite in these rocks indicate their metasedimentary character. Granetsillimanite bearing gneisses occupy most of the area of Darjeeling but not persistent throughout. Textural relationship suggests sequential growth of progressively higher-grade metamorphic minerals during D₁ and D₂ deformation. The relative X_Mg in the minerals varies in the order: biotite>staurolite>garnet, and the X_Mn decreases in the order: garnet>staurolite>biotite. The P–T evolution of these garnetsillimanite gneiss has been constrained through the use of conventional geothermobarometry, internally consistent TWEEQU programme and Perple_X software in the KFMASH model system, the combination of these three approaches demonstrates that the Darjeeling gneisses experienced peak pressure and temperature at 7.0 ± 0.3 kbar and 700 ± 30°C. The observation in this study has important bearing on the inverted metamorphism in the Himalayan metamorphic belt.

Based on isolated upper cheek teeth, two new early Eocene rodents (Subathumys solanorius gen. et sp. nov. and Subathumys globulus gen. et sp. nov.) and three others (Birbalomys cf. sondaari, Birbalomys sp., cf. Chapattimys sp.) are recorded from the lower–middle part of the Subathu Formation of the type area in Himachal Pradesh, northwestern sub-Himalaya (India). The new rodents exhibit morphological features most similar to the unified ctenodactyloid family Chapattimyidae (including Yuomyidae), which is also represented in the assemblage from the upper part (middle Eocene) of the Subathu Formation. The associated lower cheek teeth are provisionally described as three indeterminate chapattimyid taxa. The new Subathu rodents are somewhat younger than the previously documented early Eocene assemblages from the Indian subcontinent, and are chronologically intermediate between the early Eocene ailuravines from Gujarat in the western peninsular India and the middle Eocene chapattimyids from northwestern India and Pakistan. They suggest that chapattimyids originated in the sub-Himalayan region during the Ypresian, which is earlier than previously believed. The absence of ailuravines in this as well as younger rodent assemblages from the subcontinent seems to suggest that ailuravines (Ischyromyidae), within a relatively short time after their appearance in the peninsular India in the early Eocene, may have been replaced by the indigenous chapattimyids. The co-occurrence in the early Eocene Subathu assemblage of three or more chapattimyids indicates their early radiation and dominance during the early and middle Eocene. This record of rodents opens the possibility of recovery of other small mammal remains in older levels of the Subathu Formation, which will be important for understanding linkage with early Eocene faunas from peninsular India, Europe and North America.

Natural gamma ray measurements using a portable device were performed at 157 sites in the area around Sirohi town and Sindreth village in Rajasthan (NW India). This region comprises sedimentary rocks, metasediments, granites and gneisses that bear characteristic GR dose values and U/Th ratios corresponding with their specific geological history. A-type Malani granites and rhyolitic derivates, also referred as high heat production granites, show distinct differences as compared to the S-type Erinpura and Balda granites, most prominent in a high Th content of the former (up to 90 ppm). Sedimentary rocks in the Sirohi and Sindreth area are variable in their signatures reflecting their variable source rocks. In the area between the Balda and Paladi villages, northeast of Sirohi, measurements in vicinity of a N–S running shear zone, have shown U enrichment up to 8 ppm. This shear zone has been synkinematically mineralized with quartz and shows evidence of fluid infiltration into the host rocks in the vicinity of the shear zone. Erinpura granites have been altered due to fluid activity and show a light depletion of K (3.96%) and Th (20.11 ppm) as compared to the unaltered rocks (K, 4.06; Th 24.46 ppm). Enrichment of U (with a mean value of 13 ppm) has also been recorded in the lower clastic unit of the Sindreth Basin, especially within gritty conglomerates wherein migration and precipitation along fault planes is proposed.

We present and compare four types of the isostatic gravity disturbances compiled at sea level over the world oceans and marginal seas. These isostatic gravity disturbances are computed by applying the Airy–Heiskanen (AH), Pratt–Hayford (PH) and Vening Meinesz–Moritz (VMM) isostatic models. In addition, we compute the complete crust-stripped (CCS) isostatic gravity disturbances which are defined based on a principle of minimizing their spatial correlation with the Moho geometry. We demonstrate that each applied compensation scheme yields a distinctive spatial pattern in the resulting isostatic marine gravity field. The AH isostatic gravity disturbances provide the smoothest gravity field (by means of their standard deviation). The AH and VMM isostatic gravity disturbances have very similar spatial patterns due to the fact that the same isostatic principle is applied in both these definitions expect for assuming a local (in the former) instead of a global (in the latter) compensation mechanism. The PH isostatic gravity disturbances are highly spatially correlated with the ocean-floor relief. The CCS isostatic gravity disturbances reveal a signature of the ocean-floor spreading characterized by an increasing density of the oceanic lithosphere with age.

Regional analysis of suspended sediment yield (SSY) is commonly used to estimate sediment at a particular site where little or no information is available on sediment yield. In this research, the efficiency of three input selection and homogenization methods were evaluated in the estimation of SSY. Therefore, 42 sediment measurement stations and their upstream watersheds were selected and sediment rating curve was estimated by using regression models for each station. Mean annual SSY was estimated by using sediment rating curve and daily discharge. In the present study, in order to determine the independent variables in sediment yield, 11 physiographical, one climatic and two hydrologic variables of whole study watersheds were selected. Then the most effective independent variables were selected by using principal component analysis (PCA), Gamma test (GT) and stepwise regression (SR) techniques. After reducing 14 input variables to five (using PCA and GT) and two (using SR techniques), they are divided into homogeneous areas by Andrew curve (AC), cluster analysis (CA) and canonical discriminate function (CDFs) techniques. The watersheds were divided into two (using PCA-AC), three (using PCA-CA, PCA-CDFs and GT-CDFs), four (using GT-CA, GT-AC and SR-CA) and five (using SR-AC) homogenous regions. Multiple regression models to estimate mean annual SSY as a function of five (using PCA and GT) and two (using SR techniques) watershed characteristics were built in each homogeneous region, and compared to actual mean annual SSY in each station using relative error (RE), efficiency coefficients (CE) and relative root mean square error (RRMSE). The results showed that preprocessing the input variables by means of PCA and GT techniques has improved the homogeneous stations determination and the development models. According to the results, the best technique for determining homogeneous watersheds was AC technique with RE=49.24%, RRMSE=43.75% and CE=71.04%.

We investigated spatial and temporal changes in the quality of sedimentary organic matter and trophic status of the Cochin estuarine system, southwest coast of India. Sediment samples were collected in five sampling campaigns from January 2009 to April 2010. TOC/N ratio implied mixed input of autochthonous as well as remarkable allochthonous terrestrial higher plant debris into the sedimentary system. More depleted $\delta^{13}$C values at riverine and industrial zone suggested a major contribution of terrestrial higher plant debris to sedimentary organic matter. Trophic status of the estuary changed seasonally to eutrophic via oligotrophic and mesotrophic conditions during the period January 2009 to April 2010. The protein to carbohydrate ratio was lower (<1), indicating heterotrophic nature and the higher lipid to carbohydrate ratio (>1) denoted preservation of lipid compounds in the sediments. Correlation analyses provide evidence of the association of chlorophyll pigments with carbohydrates and account for the highly productive nature of the estuary and algal contributions to organic matter. Canonical correspondence analysis clearly illustrated prominence of phaeopigments in fishing zone, lipids in sewage/tourism influenced zone, carbohydrates in riverine zone and proteins in industrial zone. It also indicated the influence of sedimentary texture, pH and organic carbon to the distribution of biochemical constituents.

Seawater intrusion is one of the alarming processes that reduces the water quality and imperils the supply of freshwater in coastal aquifers. The region, north of the Chennai city, India is one such site affected by seawater intrusion. The objective of this study is to identify the extent of seawater intruded area by major geochemical and isotopic signatures. A total of 102 groundwater samples were collected and analysed for major and minor ions. Groundwater samples with electrical conductivity (EC) greater than 5000 𝜇S/cm and a river mouth sample were analyzed for Oxygen-18 (𝛿¹⁸O) and Deuterium (𝛿²H) isotopes to study their importance in monitoring seawater intrusion. The molar ratio of geochemical indicators and isotopic signatures suggests an intrusion up to a distance of 13 km from the sea as on March 2012 and up to 14.7 km during May 2012.

River Son, draining diverse lithologies in the subtropical climate of the peninsular sub-basin of the Ganga basin, is one of the major tributaries of the Ganga River. The chemistry of major ions in the surface water of the Son River was studied in detail to determine various source(s) and processes controlling its water chemistry, seasonal and spatial variations in water chemistry, dissolved fluxes and chemical denudation rate (CDR). The study shows that Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ and HCO$^{-}_{3}$ are major ionic species in the river water. Most of the measured parameters exhibit a relatively lower concentration in the post-monsoon as compared to pre-monsoon season. The water chemistry highlights the influence of continental weathering aided by secondary contributions from ground water, saline/alkaline soils and anthropogenic activities in the catchment. Results also reflect the dominance of carbonate weathering over silicate weathering in controlling water composition. The Son River delivers about 4.2 million tons of dissolved loads annually to the Ganga River, which accounts for $\sim$6% of the total annual load carried by the Ganga River to the Bay of Bengal. The average CDR of the Son River is 59.5 tons km⁻² yr⁻¹, which is less than the reported 72 tons km⁻² yr⁻¹ of the Ganga River and higher than the global average of 36 tons km⁻² yr⁻¹. The water chemistry for the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon periods shows a strong seasonal control on solute flux and CDR values. The water chemistry indicates that the Son River water is good to excellent in quality for irrigation and also suitable for drinking purposes.

Flood risk assessment is an important component of risk management. Given this context, this paper aims to identify and map areas with high potential for flash-floods and flooding occurrence, at different spatial scales (from catchment to local scale), in order to estimate the flood/flooding vulnerability. The paper is based on three main methods, which were applied in the Slănic River catchment (427 km²), located in the external curvature region of the Romanian Carpathians: (i) statistical analyses; (ii) determination and mapping of some indices to assess the flash-flood and flooding potential (FFPI and respectively FPI) and (iii) hydraulic modelling. The data used mainly include hydrological statistics (maximum monthly and annual discharges, flood-related data) and spatial data on catchment geographical characteristics (hypsometry, geology, soils, land use) obtained or derived from various sources (maps, aerial images, digital databases, field measurements) which were integrated into the GIS environment. The aforementioned methods helped to (i) highlight specificities of floods in the Slănic catchment (magnitude, frequency, flood waves characteristics); (ii) identify areas with high potential for flash-floods and flooding at the catchment spatial scale; (iii) assess the structural vulnerability in the Cernăteşti village, by simulating flood-prone areas for flood peaks with exceedance probability of 1%, 5% and 10%. The results could lead to a better knowledge and understanding of flood characteristics in the study area, in order to mitigate the flood risk through a more effective management, both at the catchment scale, as well as local scale (in the Cernătești village).

Downscaling rainfall in an arid region is much challenging compared to wet region due to erratic and infrequent behaviour of rainfall in the arid region. The complexity is further aggregated due to scarcity of data in such regions. A multilayer perceptron (MLP) neural network has been proposed in the present study for the downscaling of rainfall in the data scarce arid region of Baluchistan province of Pakistan, which is considered as one of the most vulnerable areas of Pakistan to climate change. The National Center for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) reanalysis datasets from 20 grid points surrounding the study area were used to select the predictors using principal component analysis. Monthly rainfall data for the time periods 1961–1990 and 1991–2001 were used for the calibration and validation of the MLP model, respectively. The performance of the model was assessed using various statistics including mean, variance, quartiles, root mean square error (RMSE), mean bias error (MBE), coefficient of determination (R²) and Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE). Comparisons of mean monthly time series of observed and downscaled rainfall showed good agreement during both calibration and validation periods, while the downscaling model was found to underpredict rainfall variance in both periods. Other statistical parameters also revealed good agreement between observed and downscaled rainfall during both calibration and validation periods in most of the stations.

The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) carried out in February 2000 has provided near global topographic data that has been widely used in many fields of earth sciences. The mission goal of an absolute vertical accuracy within 16 m (with 90% confidence)/RMSE $\sim$10 m was achieved based on ground validation of SRTM data through various studies using global positioning system (GPS). We present a new and independent assessment of the vertical accuracy of both the X- and C-band SRTM datasets using data from the International GNSS Service (IGS) network of high-precision static GPS stations. These stations exist worldwide, have better spatial distribution than previous studies, have a vertical accuracy of 6 mm and constitute the most accurate ground control points (GCPs) possible on earth; these stations are used as fiducial stations to define the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF). Globally, for outlier-filtered data (135 X-band stations and 290 C-band stations), the error or difference between IGS and SRTM heights exhibits a non-normal distribution with a mean and standard error of 8.2 ± 0.7 and 6.9 ± 0.5 m for X- and C-band data, respectively. Continent-wise, Africa, Australia and North America comply with the SRTM mission absolute vertical accuracy of 16 m (with 90% confidence)/RMSE $\sim$10 m. However, Asia, Europe and South America have vertical errors higher than the SRTM mission goal. At stations where both the X- and C-band SRTM data were present, the root mean square error (RMSE) of both the X- and C-bands was identical at 11.5 m, indicating similar quality of both the X- and C-band SRTM data.

The study aims at detection, mapping and monitoring of land subsidence in Jharia Coalfield, Jharkhand, India by spaceborne DInSAR, GPS and precision levelling techniques. Using multi-frequency C- and L-band DInSAR, both slowly and rapidly subsiding areas were identified and DInSAR-based subsidence maps were prepared. C-band DInSAR was found useful for detection of slowly subsiding areas whereas L-band DInSAR for rapidly subsiding and/or adverse land cover areas. Due to dynamic nature of mining and adverse land cover, temporal decorrelation poses a serious problem particularly in C-band DInSAR. Specially designed InSAR coherence guided adaptive filtering was found useful to highlight the deformation fringes. Collateral GPS and levelling observations were conducted in three test sites to validate DInSAR measurements and to determine the net displacement vectors. We observed an appreciable horizontal displacement component of land subsidence in all the test sites. For comparison of results, we calculated InSAR coherence weighted LOS displacement rates from the unwrapped differential interferograms of smaller spatial subsets and LOS projected ground-based displacement rates in three test sites. We found good agreement between DInSAR and ground-based measurements except for C-band observation in Dobari test site primarily due to large difference in observation periods and temporally inconsistent land subsidence. Collateral spaceborne and ground-based observations were also found useful for characterization of subsidence phenomena to determine net displacement vector and horizontal displacement component. In coal mining areas with spatially scattered and temporally irregular land subsidence phenomena, the adopted methodology can be used successfully for detection, mapping and monitoring of the subsiding areas vulnerable to future collapse. This will facilitate efficient planning and designing of surface infrastructures and other developmental structures in the mining areas and mitigation management of subsidence induced hazards.