• Volume 124, Issue 2

March 2015,   pages  283-486

• GPS-based ionospheric tomography with a constrained adaptive simultaneous algebraic reconstruction technique

In this paper, a constrained adaptive simultaneous algebraic reconstruction technique (CASART) is presented to obtain high-quality reconstructions from insufficient projections. According to the continuous smoothness of the variations of ionospheric electron density (IED) among neighbouring voxels, Gauss weighted function is introduced to constrain the tomography system in the new method. It can resolve the dependence on the initial values for those voxels without any GPS rays traversing them. Numerical simulation scheme is devised to validate the feasibility of the new algorithm. Some comparisons are made to demonstrate the superiority of the new method. Finally, the actual GPS observations are applied to further validate the feasibility and superiority of the new algorithm.

• Climatology of ionosphere over low-latitude (Kolkata) using FORMOSAT-3/COSMIC satellite observation

We have analyzed the diurnal, monthly, and seasonal variation in NmF2, HmF2, and IECs parameters derived from the COSMIC-RO observation over the low-latitude (Kolkata) region during 2008–2012 and compared the result with the IRI-2007 model output. In general, during HSA period the seasonal averaged model outcome prominently overestimates the observed values throughout the day, except HmF2, while in LSA period it is confined to post-noon hours. The differences between diurnal-dip and diurnal-peak values of all these parameters are considerably higher in the model outcomes than those of observed values, especially during increasing solar activity. In addition, the monthly averaged NmF2, BIEC, and TIEC values at noon and midnight, obtained from the both options, exhibit semi-annual variation, which are in good agreement with some earlier studies, whereas HmF2 shows annual variability for all solar activity. Moreover, the similarities and dissimilarities observed in variation pattern, particularly during 2011 and 2012, can help the research community to understand the recent trends of ionospheric parameters and develop the IRI model with more efficiency to fit the observed profile in a better way.

• Variability of surface ozone with cloud coverage over Kolkata, India

Critical analysis of experimental surface ozone data and cloud coverage is reported over Kolkata during the period January 2011 to December 2011. Significant relationship between these two parameters is observed. Analysis shows that the trend of surface ozone concentration and cloud coverage follow opposite tendency. Some exceptional observations are also reported. Apart from this, seasonal variation of surface ozone with columnar ozone concentration, NO2 and temperature is also examined in relation with cloud cover to obtain a possible explanation of this type of variation.

• Simulation of Indian summer monsoon using the Japan Meteorological Agency’s seasonal ensemble prediction system

The performance of a dynamical seasonal forecast system is evaluated for the prediction of summer monsoon rainfall over the Indian region during June–September (JJAS) by using hindcast of the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) seasonal ensemble prediction system (EPS) model, based on five ensembles of March, April and May initial states for a period of 32 years (1979–2010).

The hindcast climatology during JJAS simulates the mean monsoon circulation at lower and upper tropospheres very well in JMA model using March, April and May ensembles with a more realistic simulation of Webster and Yang’s broad scale monsoon circulation index. The JMA hindcast climatology during JJAS simulates the rainfall maxima over the west-coast of India and the head Bay of Bengal reasonably well, although, the latter is slightly shifted southwestward. Associated with better forecast skills of El Nino in the JMA model, the interannual variability of All India Summer Monsoon Rainfall (AISMR) during the 32-year period has also been very well simulated with a high significant (99% level) correlation in April ensemble followed by that of March and May ensembles. Thus, the present analysis indicates that the JMA seasonal forecast model can prove to be a useful tool for the dynamical seasonal forecast of AISMR.

• Evaluation of precipitation and river discharge variations over southwestern Iran during recent decades

This study investigates trend and change point in the annual and monthly precipitation and river discharge time series for a 56-year period (1956/57–2011/12). The analyses were carried out for 17 rain gauge stations and 13 hydrometric stations located in the southwest regions of Iran. Five statistical tests of Mann–Kendall, Spearman, Sequential Mann–Kendall, Pettitt and Sen’s slope estimator were utilized for the analysis. The relationships between the precipitation and river discharge series were also examined by the Pearson correlation test. The results obtained for the precipitation time series indicated that most of the stations were characterized by insignificant trends for both the annual and monthly series. The analysis of discharge trends revealed a significant increase during both the annual and October through April series. The magnitude of significant increasing trends in annual river discharge ranged between 6.65 and 20.49 m3/s per decade. The highest number of significant trends in the monthly river discharge series was observed in January and February, accounting for seven and four trends respectively. Furthermore, most of the annual and monthly river discharge series showed significant change points in the 1970s. It was also found that river discharge was strongly correlated with precipitation at the annual scale and for most of the months.

• Change in glacier area and thickness in the Tomur Peak, western Chinese Tien Shan over the past four decades

This paper looks at glacier area change in the Tomur Peak for the 1964/71–2000 and 2000–2011 periods. The results show that the total area of the selected 78 glaciers has decreased from 555.45 km2 in 1964/71 to 530.39 km2 in 2000, and further reduced to 521.89 km2 in 2011. Overall, the selected glaciers have lost 4.50% of their surface area between 1964/71 and 2000, and have lost 1.60% more between 2000 and 2011. The area reduction rate of the 78 glaciers increased from 0.12%/a during 1964/71–2000 to 0.13%/a during 2000–2011. In addition, this paper describes a method for estimating the ice surface elevation change using the SRTM (2000) and elevation data generated from topographic maps (1964/71) to quantify the ice thickness change for the 1964/71–2000 period. The surface elevation for about 73.50% of grid area decreased, mostly in the glacier ablation zone. The overall average thickness loss is 22.35 m which yields an annual loss of 0.60 m/a.

• Decline in snowfall in response to temperature in Satluj basin, western Himalaya

Snow is an essential resource present in the Himalaya. Therefore, monitoring of the snowfall changes over a time period is important for hydrological and climatological purposes. In this study, variability of snowfall from 1976–2008 were analysed and compared with variability in temperature ($T$max and $T$min) from 1984–2008 using simple linear regression analysis and Mann–Kendall test in the Satluj Basin. The annual, seasonal, and monthly analyses of average values of snowfall and temperature ($T$max and $T$min) have been carried out. The study also consists an analysis of average values of annual snowfall and temperature over six elevation zones (&lt;1500 to &gt;4000 m amsl). During the study, it was observed that the snowfall exhibited declining trends in the basin. The snowfall trends are more sensitive to the climate change below an elevation of 4000 m amsl. Over the elevation zones of 3000–3500 and 4000–4500 m amsl, positive trends of mean annual values of snowfall were observed that may be due to higher precipitation as snowfall at these higher elevations. Although, both negative and positive snowfall trends were statistically insignificant, however, if this decreasing trend in snowfall continues, it may result in significant however, changes in future. Furthermore, the $T$min is also increasing with statistically significant positive trend at 95% confidence level for November, winter season, annually as well as for the elevation zones of 2500–3000, 3000–3500, and 3500–4000 m amsl. There are dominantly increasing trends in $T$max with negative trends for February, June–September, monsoon season, and for elevation zone &lt;1500 m amls. It is important to state that in the present basin, during the months of winter season, most of the precipitation is produced as snowfall by the westerly weather disturbances. Thus, the declining nature in snowfall is concurrent with the positive trends in temperature particularly $T$min, therefore, reflecting that the positive trends in $T$min may be the dominant factor besides $T$max in controlling the snowfall trends. The snowfall data were also compared with SCA and this showed a highly positive correlation of 0.95% which validates the utilisation of time series of snowfall for the trend analysis.

• The health of benthic diatom assemblages in lower stretch of a lesser Himalayan glacier-fed river, Mandakini

This study examines the ecological state of epilithic diatom assemblages along the lower stretch of Mandakini, a glacier-fed Himalayan river. The diatoms were sampled at four stations during winter and summer, only once in each season. Valve counts were obtained from Naphrax mounts prepared from each sample. Assemblages were recorded for each location. The software OMNIDIA Ver. 5.3 was used for computing the ecological values from the sample counts. Normally Achnanthidium spp. dominated the assemblages, except Nitzschia fonticola (Grunow) at S1 (Kund) and Encyonema minutum (Hilse in Rabh) at S4 (Rudraprayag), only during summer. The ecological values revealed that the assemblages were in 𝛽-mesosaprobic and mésotraphentic states. However, at S4, trophic state was observed to be eutraphentic. Louis Leclercq index indicated that organic pollution was nonexistent, while the anthropogenic eutrophication was low except at S2 (Tilwara) and S3 (Medanpur) in summer and was moderate at S4 in winter characterized by a lean flow. The most abundant indicator taxa for anthropogenic eutrophication are varied; Cymbella tumida (Brebisson-Van Heurck) at S1, Encyonema minutum at S2, S4 while Surirella aungusta (Kutzing) at S3. Ordination showed that the taxa indicating degradation and anthropogenic eutrophication figured as characteristic taxa at respective locations.

• Variations and trends of terrestrial NPP and its relation to climate change in the 10 CMIP5 models

Using global terrestrial ecosystem net primary productivity (NPP) data, we validated the simulated multi-model ensemble (MME) NPP, analyzed the spatial distribution of global NPP and explored the relationship between NPP and climate variations in historical scenarios of 10 CMIP5 models. The results show that the global spatial pattern of simulated terrestrial ecosystem NPP, is consistent with IGBP NPP, but the values have some differences and there is a huge uncertainty. Considering global climate change, near surface temperature is the major factor affecting the terrestrial ecosystem, followed by the precipitation. This means terrestrial ecosystem NPP is more closely related to near surface temperature than precipitation. Between 1976 and 2005, NPP shows an obvious increasing temporal trend, indicating the terrestrial ecosystem has had a positive response to climate change. MME NPP has increased 3.647PgC during historical period, which shows an increasing temporal trend of 3.9 gCm−2∙100 yr−2 in the past 150 years, also indicating that the terrestrial ecosystem has shown a positive response to climate change in past 150 years.

• Effects of geological structures on groundwater flow and quality in hardrock regions of northern Tirunelveli district, southern India

Geological and structural influences on groundwater flow and quality were evaluated in the present study in the hardrock regions of Tirunelveli District, southern India. Groundwater is a major source of freshwater in this region to cater to the requirements of domestic and agricultural activity, as there are no surface water resources. Geologically, the area is characterized by charnockites and garnetiferous biotite gneiss. Groundwater in this region is found to occur in the weathered portion under unconfined condition and in fractured/fissured portions under unconfined to semi-confined condition. Existence of deep-seated fractures are minimal. Lineaments/dykes play a major role in the occurrence and movement of groundwater in the region. Lineaments/dykes of the study area can be broadly divided into two types: north–south and west–east oriented structures. Analysis and field observations revealed that the north–south dykes act as a barrier of groundwater while the west–east oriented structures behave as a carrier of groundwater. Both quality and quantity of groundwater is different on the upstream and downstream sides of the dyke. Hence, it is conclusive that the west–east oriented dykes in this region are highly potential and act as a conduit for groundwater movement from recharge areas to the discharge area.

• Physico-chemical characteristics of Jharkhand and West Bengal thermal springs along SONATA mega lineament, India

The chemical and isotopic compositions of thermal springs located along the Son–Narmada–Tapti (SONATA) mega lineament in central India have been investigated. The issuing temperatures of the thermal waters vary from 31° to 89°C for the thermal springs and 24° to 25°C for the cold springs. These thermal springs are located on the Archean Chotanagpur Gneissic Complex (CGC) in the eastern part of peninsular India. The thermal springs are mostly alkaline in nature with pH varying from 7.5 to 9.5. Piper diagram suggests that the chemistry of the thermal waters is compatible with the granitic host rocks through which the waters circulate. Mineral saturation index suggests that the thermal waters are saturated with cristobalite and quartz at lower temperatures (less than $\sim$130 to 150°C), and calcite and forsterite at higher temperatures ($\sim$160° to 250°C). The estimated reservoir temperature based on chemical geothermometers is in the range of 132°–265°C, which favours a medium enthalpy geothermal system. Oxygen isotope fractionation of Bakreswar and Tantloi thermal springs highlights a higher reservoir temperature than estimated by chemical geothermometer. Positive gravity anomalies over Bakreswar and Tantloi areas strongly suggest a basement/mantle upliftment or mafic intrusion which could account for the heat source close to the surface. However, the large negative gravity anomaly depression around the Surajkund and Katkamsandi thermal springs indicates presence of deep seated faults.

• Landslide susceptibility zonation in part of Tehri reservoir region using frequency ratio, fuzzy logic and GIS

A comprehensive study for the identification of landslide susceptible zones using landslide frequency ratio and fuzzy logic in GIS environment is presented for Tehri reservoir rim region (Uttarakhand, India). Temporal remote sensing data was used to prepare important landslide causative factor layers and landslide inventory. Primary and secondary topographic attributes namely slope, aspect, relative relief, profile curvature, topographic wetness index, and stream power index, were derived from digital elevation model. Landslide frequency ratio technique was adopted to correlate factors with landslides. Further, fuzzy logic method was applied for the integration of factors (causative factor) to map landslide susceptible zones. Normalized landslide frequency ratio value was used for the fuzzy membership function and different fuzzy operators were considered for the preparation of landslide susceptibility/hazard index map. The factors considered in this study were found to be carrying a wide range of information. Accordingly, a methodology was evolved to integrate the factors using combined fuzzy gamma and fuzzy OR operation. Fuzzy gamma integration was performed for six different gamma values (range: 0–1). Gamma value of 0.95 was selected for the preparation of final susceptibility map. Landslide susceptibility index map was divided into the following five hazard zones – very low, low, moderate, high, and very high – on the basis of natural break classification. Validation of the model was performed by using cumulative percentage curve technique. Area under curve value of cumulative percentage curve of proposed landslide susceptibility map (gamma = 0.95) was found to be 0.834 and it can be said that 83.4% accuracy was achieved by applying combined fuzzy logic and landslide frequency ratio method.

• Reorientation of lineation in the Central Crystalline Zone, Munsiari–Milam area of the Kumaun Greater Himalaya

During large scale ductile shear deformation, linear features of the rocks tend to be reoriented towards the direction of bulk shear. This is demonstrated in a crustal scale shear zone of the Himalaya, the Main Central Thrust (MCT), typically exposed in the Munsiari–Milam area of eastern Kumaun Greater Himalaya. Along the MCT, the crystalline rocks of the Greater Himalaya are thrust over the younger sedimentary belt of the Lesser Himalaya. In the study area, the scatter of lineation orientation in the vicinity of the MCT has been observed to drastically reduce within 27° in a zone of about 18 km (about 13 km in the crystalline rocks and about 5 km in the sedimentary rocks). Beyond this zone, the scatter is very high, up to 70° or more. The low scatter of lineation orientation around the MCT could be related to the strong ductile shear deformation associated with the movement along this thrust due to which the linear features got reoriented towards the direction of bulk shear. Away from this zone, ductile shearing had negligible or no effect on the rocks and, therefore, the scatter of lineation remains very high.

• Geochemistry of PGE in mafic rocks of east Khasi Hills, Shillong Plateau, NE India

The mafic rocks of east Khasi Hills of the Meghalaya Plateau, northeastern India, occur as an intrusive body which cut across the weakly metamorphosed Shillong Group of rocks. Other than Shillong Group of rocks, high grade Archaean gneissic rocks and younger porphyritic granites are also observed in the study area. The studied mafic rocks of east Khasi Hills cover an area of about 4 km2 and represent structurally controlled intrusion and varying grades of deformation. Structurally, these mafic rocks can be divided into massive type of mafic rocks, which are more or less deformation free and foliated type of mafic rocks that experienced deformation. Petrographically, this massive type can be classified as leuco-hornblende-gabbro whereas foliated type can be designated as amphibolite. On the basis of major oxide geochemistry, the investigated mafic rocks can be discriminated into high titanium (HT) (TiO2 &gt; 2 wt%) and low titanium (LT) types (TiO2 &lt; 2 wt%). Use of several geochemical variation diagrams, consideration of chondrite-normalized and mantle-normalized REE and PGE plots suggest role of magmatic differentiation (with almost no role of plagioclase fractionation) in a subduction controlled tectonic environment. The PGE trends of the studied rocks suggest relative enrichment of palladium group of PGE (PPGE) compared to iridium group PGE (IPGE). Critical consideration of Sm vs. La, Cu vs. La, Pd vs. La and Cu/Pd vs. La/Sm plots strongly favours generation of the parent magma at a columnar melting regime with batch melting of cylindrical column of the parent mantle to the tune of $\sim$25%. The characteristic PGE behaviours of the presently investigated mafic rocks of east Khasi Hills can be typically corroborated as ‘orogenic’ (discordant) type. These rocks have an enriched mantle affinity with a co-magmatic lineage and they have been generated by slab-dehydration, wedge-melting and assimilation fractional crystallization process at a continental margin arc setting.

• Heavy mineral variation in the deep sea sediment of southeastern Arabian Sea during the past 32 kyr

The present study is based on heavy mineral assemblages (HM) of top 104-cm thick section of gravity core SK 221 (Lat. 8°7.12′N; Long. 73°16.38′E and water depth – 2188 m) located near the Chagos–Laccadive Ridge in the southeastern Arabian Sea to evaluate the provenance and paleoenvironmental changes during the last 32 kyr. The biogenic carbonate, acid insoluble residue, magnetic susceptibility, total organic carbon (TOC) and clay based humidity index, i.e., kaolinite/illite ratio are also utilized to correlate with the above paleoenvironmental changes. Ilmenite, garnet, staurolite, pyroxenes, andalusite and zircon are the dominant HM with moderate to low ZTR (zircon-tourmaline-rutile) index indicating instability of the sediments and rapid erosion in the source region. The characteristic HM suggest their mixed sources from the basic igneous, gneisses/granites, high grade metamorphic rocks and sandstones occurring mainly in the western and southwestern India. The temporal variations of HM, AIR (acid insoluble residue), MS (magnetic susceptibility), biogenic carbonate and Corg (TOC) during preglacial and early Holocene suggest intensive weathering, erosion, and transportation of terrigenous detritus from continental region by fluvial processes and summer monsoon led high biogenic productivity, respectively. The convective mixing of waters due to intense winter monsoon resulted in very high biogenic carbonate content during the early stages of glacial period. The HM and associated proxies indicated that the winter monsoons of Heinrich (H3, H2, and H1) and Younger Dryas (YD) events and summer monsoons of Bølling/Allerød (BA) event were not strong enough to bring drastic changes in the above parameters.

• # Journal of Earth System Science

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